ITEMS FROM THE UNITED STATES

 

KANSAS

KANSAS AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS
Room 200, 632 S.W. Van Buren, Topeka, KS 66603, USA.

E.J. Thiessen, Sherri Hand, and Ron Sitzman.

Jagger remains number one cultivar. [p. 177-180]

Jagger was the leading cultivar of wheat seeded in Kansas for the 2003 crop (Table 1). Accounting for 45.2 % of the state's wheat, Jagger increased 2.4 points from a year ago and was the most popular cultivar in seven of the nine districts. Jagger made the biggest gain in the southcentral district. The KSU-maintained cultivar 2137 ranked second over all, with 13.3 % of the acreage. 2137 ranked first in one district and second in five. TAM 110 moved up to third position, and increased 0.8 points from last year. Karl and improved Karl moved down to fourth place with 3.2 % of the acreage. The OSU maintained cultivar 2174 moved down to fifth place with 3.1 % of the state's acreage. TAM 107 held onto sixth place with 2.3 %. Dominator moved up to seventh place, with 2.2 %. Ike moved down to eighth place, with 2.1 %. New to the top ten is Trego, a HWWW, ranking ninth with 1.8 %. The KSU-maintained cultivar 2163 remained in the top ten with 0.8 %. Acres planted with multiple cultivar blends were not included in the rankings by cultivar. Blends accounted for 12.8 % of the acres planted statewide and were used more extensively in the northcentral and central parts of the state. Out of the total state acres planted with blends, 98.6 % had Jagger in the blend and 77.0 % had 2137 in the blend. All HWWWs accounted for 2.7 % of the state's acreage. Trego was the leading HWWW, accounting for 67 percent of the state's white wheat. The majority of the white wheat was planted in the western third of the state. This project is funded by the Kansas Wheat Commission.

Table 3. Distribution of Kansas winter wheat cultivars, 2000 crop.

Table 4. Distribution of Kansas winter wheat cultivars, specified years.

Publications.

Monthly Crop. Wheat cultivars, percent of acreage devoted to each cultivar. Wheat quality, test weight, moisture, and protein content of current harvest. $10.00

Crop-Weather. Issued each Monday, March 1 through November 30 and monthly, December through February. Provides crop and weather information for previous week. $12.00

County Estimates. County data on wheat acreage seeded and harvested, yield, and production on summer fallow, irrigated, and continuous cropped land. December.

Wheat Quality. County data on protein, test weight, moisture, grade, and dockage. Includes milling and baking tests, by cultivar, from a probability sample of Kansas wheat. September.

Each of the above reports is available on the Internet at the following address: http://www.nass.usda.gov/ks/

Reports available via E-mail and how to subscribe.

A list of all SSO reports that are available via E-mail can be found on the Internet at http://www.nass.usda.gov/sub-form.htm, which provides for automated subscribing. The reports are provided without charge. To subscribe to one or more of the reports listed, follow the instructions on the automated form.

KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY

ENVIRONMENTAL PHYSICS GROUP

Department of Agronomy, Waters Hall, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506-5501, USA.

Update on heavy metals in soil at the Manhattan, KS, Biosolids Farm growing winter wheat. [p. 180-181]

M. Stanley Liphadzi and M.B. Kirkham.

Last year, we reported concentrations of heavy metals in soil at the Manhattan, KS, Biosolids Farm, which grows winter wheat on the sludge-injected soil. However, the samples that we reported as 'controls' were not labelled correctly. These samples came from a new part of the farm that had received sludge during the summer of 2000. This area is labelled 'Area XIV' on the map of the sludge farm. The sludge came from a lagoon that had held the aerobically digested sludge (2 % solids or less) since 1978. The lagoon was 0.33 ha in area and 5.18 m in depth. All of this liquid was applied during the early summer of 2000 at a rate of 14.9 metric tons/ha to a field, which then grew soybeans that summer. The soil was sampled on 30 November, 2000, by personnel at the Manhattan, KS, Wastewater Treatment Plant. The soil that had received sludge yearly for 25 years and that grew winter wheat, in the old area of the farm, was sampled by the personnel on 13 March, 2001. This old area is labelled 'Area IV' on the map of the sludge farm, which was established in 1976. In the early years of the sludge farm (1976-92), 32 t/ha dry sludge were applied yearly. On 25 November, 1992, the EPA published regulations limiting land disposal of sludge (known as the 40 Code of Federal Regulations Part 503) and rates of sludge application now must be based on agronomically acceptable practices, which depend on the type of crop grown and its nitrogen requirements. Because we had no control samples, on 8 June, 2002, we sampled soil adjacent to Area IV. This area was fenced-off and holds the shed that houses the sludge injector when it is not in use. We now report the concentration of metals in the three different areas (Table 1).

Table 1. Total concentrations (mg/kg) of heavy metals in the surface 30 cm of soil at the Manhattan, KS, Biosolids Farm, where winter wheat is grown. Mean and standard deviation are shown; n = 3 for the 25-year-application site (Area IV at the Farm); n = 6 for the site where liquid sludge (biosolids) in a 22-year old lagoon was emptied during the early summer of 2000 (Area XIV); and n = 2 for the control site, which was adjacent to Area IV, but had received no biosolids.

Time of biosolids application to soil  (years)	Cd	Cu	Fe	Mn	Ni	Pb	Zn
	mg/kg
25	0.82 ± 0.15	16.7 ± 2.9	8,770 ± 1,400	167 ± 61	8.93 ± 1.94	27.2 ± 3.3	31.2 ± 2.5
One summer	0.88 ± 0.27	8.5 ± 3.1	12,000 ± 3,870	212 ± 74	12.4 ± 4.5	32.6 ± 6.9	20.7 ± 7.0
Control	0.75 + 0.04	8.8 + 0.2	6,910 + 667	130 + 2	9.0 + 1.00	18.6 + 0.5	22.0 + 0.1

In general, our conclusions from last year hold. That is, the results show that, after 25 years of application of biosolids to the farm, concentrations of heavy metals have not increased in the soil, except for Cu, Pb, and Zn. Lead is the only toxic heavy metal, and the reason for its elevated level is not known.

We thank Dr. Abdu Durar, Assistant Director of Utilities, Wastewater, City of Manhattan, Kansas, for supplying the soil samples from Areas IV and XIV at the Biosolids Farm.

News. [p. 181]

Dr. Stanley Liphadzi received his Ph.D. at graduation ceremonies at Kansas State University on 13 December, 2002.

Publications. [p. 181]

• Kirkham MB. 2002. The concept of the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum and applications. In: Environmental Mechanics: Water, Mass and Energy Transfer in the Biosphere, Geophysical Monograph 129 (Raats PAC, Smiles DE, and Warrick AW eds). American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC.
• Liphadzi MS, Kirkham MB, and Mankin KR. 2002. Remediation of ammonium-contaminated abandoned animal waste lagoon soil: physical properties and growth of barley. Soil Sediment Contamination 11:789-807.
• Madrid F, Liphadzi MS, and Kirkham MB. 2003. Heavy metal displacement in chelate-irrigated soil during phytoremediation. J Hydrol (in press).
• Madrid F and Kirkham MB. 2002. Heavy metal uptake by barley and sunflower grown in abandoned animal waste lagoon soil. In: Proc 17th World Congr Soil Sci, 14-21 August, 2002, Bangkok, Thailand. Pp. 401-1-401-10 (on CD-ROM only).
• Nagaraj N, Reese JC, Kirkham MB, Kofoid K, Campbell LR, and Loughin TM. 2002. Relationship between chlorophyll loss and photosynthetic rate in greenbug (Homoptera: Aphididae) damaged sorghum. J Kansas Entomol Soc 75:101-109.
• Nagaraj N, Reese JC, Kirkham MB, Kofoid K, Campbell LR, and Loughin TM. 2002. Effect of greenbug, Schizaphis graminum (Rondani) (Homoptera: Aphididae), Biotype K on chlorophyll content and photosynthetic rate of tolerant and susceptible sorghum hydrids. J Kansas Entomol Soc 75:299-307.
• Sweeney DW, Long JH, and Kirkham MB. 2003. Single irrigations during reproductive growth to improve early maturing soybean yield and quality. Soil Sci Soc Amer J 67:235-240.
• Zhu L and Kirkham MB. 2003. Initial crop growth in soil collected from a closed animal waste lagoon. Bioresource Technol (in press).
• Xu Q and Kirkham MB. 2003. Combined effect of irradiance and water regime on sorghum photosynthesis. Photosynthetica (in press).
• Zhu L and Kirkham MB. 2003. Plant remediation of soil beneath an abandoned waste lagoon. J Sustainable Agric (in press).

THE WHEAT GENETICS RESOURCE CENTER

Department of Plant Pathology, Throckmorton Hall, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506-5502, USA.

http://www.ksu.edu/wgrc/

B.S. Gill, W.J. Raupp, B. Friebe, D.L. Wilson, G.M. Paulsen, J. Wang, L. Huang, and S.A. Brooks.

The WGRC Gene Bank. [p. 182]

The working collection of wild wheat species maintained by WGRC consists of 3,098 accessions comprising annual Triticum and Aegilops species (Table 1). This collection is a composite, as distinguished from core collections established by pioneering plant explorers. The entries in the germ plasm collection are from expeditions by the University of Kyoto (Japan) in 1955, 1959, 1966, and 1970; Johnson and coworkers (University of Riverside, CA, USA) 1966, 1972, and 1973; E. Nevo and colleagues (University of Haifa, Israel); and R.J. Metzger (University of Oregon, Corvallis, USA), J. Hoffman (USDA-ARS), G. Kimber (University of Missouri, Columbia, USA), S. Jana (University of Saskatchewan, Canada), and A. Sencor, M. Kanbertay, and C. Tüten (Agean Agricultural Research Institute, Manemen, Izmir, Turkey), 1979, 1984, and 1985. Additional accessions from major gene banks of the world include ICARDA (Aleppo, Syria), the USDA Small Grains Collection (Aberdeen, ID, USA), the N.I. Vavilov Institute (St. Petersburg, Russia), and the Institute for Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Gatersleben, Germany).

The world collection of Triticum and Aegilops consists of approximately 17,500 accessions distributed in a dozen or so gene banks worldwide. To access this extensive material to our germ plasm collection or making arrangements for its availability, we have made a survey of global wheat genetic resources and documented accessions and diversity. Data previously available only in the literature, through gene bank records, or by personal communication can now be accessed via the World Wide Web and other computer interfaces. In the future, the WGRC hopes to further distribute information by coöperating with other gene banks and database coördinators. Additionally, dissemination of data via the internet (the WGRC home page is http://www.ksu.edu/wgrc/) will be increasingly useful to scientists requesting germ plasm and other genetic stocks.

New acquisitions for the germ plasm collection include several mapping populations of Karnal bunt-resistant material from Dr. Indu Sharma (Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India), a collection of Ae. tauschii, Ae. crassa, and Ae. triuncialis and T. aestivum landraces from Dr. Safarali Namoor (Research Institute of Plant Physiology and Genetics, Dushanbe, Tajikistan), and Haynaldia villosa accessions from the Gatersleben Gene Bank, the Prague Gene Bank, and the USDA Small Grains Collection. See Table 2 for a summary of the genetic stocks maintained by the WGRC gene bank.

Genetic and cytogenetic stocks. [p. 183]

New amphiploids. Rapid genetic changes in new hybrids and amphiploids have been reported recently. For this purpose, we have initiated production of new hybrids involving extracted tetraploids from the cultivars Chinese Spring, Canthatch, and Thatcher with various accessions of Ae. tauschii. The F1 embryos were rescued and placed on tissue-culture medium and will be treated with colchicine to produce amphiploids next year.

New addition lines. We are in the process of developing a set of wheat-Ae. biuncialis (2n = 4x = 28, U^b^U^b^M^b^M^b^) chromosome-addition lines. To date, six disomic Ae. biuncialis additions have been identified. Previously, we reported on the development of a complete set of chromosome addition lines from the closely related species Ae. geniculata (2n = 4x = 28, U^g^U^g^M^g^M^g^) (Friebe et al. 1999; Genome 42:374-380). Once the set of Ae. biuncialis additions have been completed; a detailed analysis of the evolutionary relationships of the U^b^/U^g^ and M^b^/M^g^ chromosomes can be made.

Recently we reported on the development of a complete set of wheat-Ae. speltoides chromosome addition lines (Friebe et al. 2000; Theor Appl Genet 101:51-58). This set of addition lines is especially interesting because the S genome of Ae. speltoides is considered as the most closely related genome in the Sitopsis group to the B genome of T. aestivum. By crossing the addition lines with the appropriate B-genome monosomic stocks we have produced five S(B) chromosome substitution lines. Once this set has been completed these stocks will allow to determine the sporophytic and gametophytic compensation ability of the S-genome chromosomes (Friebe et al. 1993; Genome 35:731-742).

We also have developed eight disomic 4Ssh chromosome addition and three disomic substitution lines from different Ae. sharonensis accession that all have a functional Gc2 gene. These lines were screened for marker polymorphism and regular meiotic pairing in the 4S^sh^L arm against the original 4S^sh^ 'cuckoo' chromosome. Two lines had high levels of polymorphism and regular meiotic-pairing behavior, and these lines were used to produce mapping populations that will allow fine mapping of the Gc2 gene. This is the first step towards the cloning of this gene, which will allow us to analyze the molecular mechanism/s underlying Gc function.

Tolerance to heat stress. [p. 183]

Sudden, high temperatures during grain filling are a major impediment to high wheat crop yields in the Great Plains. Stable photosynthesis in some genotypes and high reserve content in others were associated with low susceptibility to stress and provided for high grain yield. A minimum of 1.4 genes with both additive and dominance effects were determined from crosses between a heat-tolerant (Ventnor) and a heat-sensitive (Jagger) genotype. Two microsatellite markers are linked to quantitative trait loci for grain-filling duration during heat stress.

These results indicated that heat tolerance in common wheat is controlled by multiple genes and suggests that marker-assisted selection with microsatellite primers might be useful for developing improved cultivars. We also tested 30 synthetic hexaploid wheats (T. durum/Ae. tauschii) and amphiploid derivatives from different grasses for their heat tolerance, although the value of the octaploid amphiploids is questionable because of low kernel number in lines with a low heat stress index. Three papers were published from this research (see publications list Yang et al. 2002a, 2002b, 2002c).

Rust resistance. [p. 184]

A potentially durable and highly effective leaf rust-resistance gene in wheat, an Lr21 allele (previously designated as Lr40) was introgressed from a different accession (TA1649) into the wheat cultivar Wichita to develop leaf rust-resistant germ plasm lines WGRC2 and WGRC7. A strategy was developed and used for map-based cloning of Lr21 from wheat. Cloning of Lr21 was confirmed by genetic transformation and a stably inherited, resistant phenotype was recovered in transgenic plants. Molecular characterization of Lr21 indicated that the gene spans 4,318-bp genomic DNA and encodes a 1,080 amino-acid protein containing a conserved nucleotide-binding site (NBS) domain, 13 imperfect leucine-rich repeats (LRR), and a unique 151 amino-acid sequence missing from known NBS-LRR proteins at the N-terminal region. With the cloning and successful genetic transformation of Lr21, we can now use a molecular approach for breeding wheat for durable rust resistance.

Personnel. [p. 184]

New graduate research assistants in the laboratories of the WGRC include Michael Pumphrey (M.S. University of Minnesota), Jamie Wilson (B.S. University of Northern Iowa), and Shalpa Kuraparthy from India. Peng Zhang completed her Ph.D. dissertation 'Analysis of the wheat genome by BAC-FISH' and currently is a research associate with Bernd Friebe.

Visitors to the WGRC laboratories in 2002 included Dr. Gulzar Singh Chahal, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India, July­December; Dr. Peidu Chen, Nanjing Agricultural University, China, March; Didier Lamouroux, INRA (National Institute for Agronomic Research), Clermont-Ferrand, France, October­December; Robert A. McIntosh, University of Sydney, Australia, June; Dr. Safarali Namoor, Research Institute of Plant Physiology and Genetics, Dushanbe, Tajikistan, May­June; Dr. Tomás Naranjo, Universidad Compultense Madrid, Spain, September; and Dr. Indu Sharma, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India, October.

Publications. [p. 184-185]

• Aghaee-Sarbarzeh M, Ferrahi M, Singh S, Singh H, Friebe B, and Gill BS. 2002. PhI-induced transfer of leaf and stripe rust-resistance genes from Aegilops triuncialis and Ae. geniculata to bread wheat. Euphytica 127:377-382.
• Anand A, Zhou T, Trick HN, Gill BS, Bockus WW, and Muthukrishnan S. 2003. Greenhouse and field testing of transgenic wheat plants stably expressing genes for thaumatin-like protein, chitinase and glucanase against Fusarium graminearum. J Exp Bot 54(384):1011-1111.
• Badaeva ED , Amosoma AV, Muravenko OV, Samatadze TE, Chikida NN, Zelenin AV, Friebe B, and Gill BS. 2002. Genome differentiation in Aegilops. 3. Evolution of the D-genome cluster. Plant Syst Evol 231:163-190.
• Boyko E, Kalendar R, Korzun V, Fellers J, Korol A, Schulman AH, and Gill BS. 2002. A high-density cytogenetic map of the Aegilops tauschii genome incorporating retrotransposons and defense-related genes: insights into cereal chromosome structure and function. Plant Mol Biol 48:767-790.
• Brooks SA, Huang L, Gill BS, and Fellers JP. 2002. Analysis of 106 kb of contiguous DNA sequence from the D genome of wheat reveals high gene density and a complex arrangement of genes related to disease resistance. Genome 45:963-972.
• Dahr MJ, Friebe B, Koul AK, and Gill BS. 2002. Origin of an apparent B chromosome by mutation, chromosome fragmentation and specific DNA sequence amplification. Chromosoma 111:332-340
• Faris JD, Friebe B, and Gill BS. 2002. Wheat genomics: exploring the polyploid model. Curr Genomics 3:577-591.
• Faris JD and Gill BS. 2002. Genomic targeting and high-resolution mapping of the domestication gene Q in wheat. Genome 45:706-718.
• Faris JD, Fellers JP, Brooks SA, and Gill BS. 2002. A bacterial artificial chromosome contig spanning the major domestication locus Q in wheat and identification of a candidate gene. Genetics 164(1):311-321.
• Friebe B, Zhang P, Nasuda S, and Gill BS. 2003. Characterization of a knock-out mutation at the Gc2 locus in wheat. Chromosoma 111-509-517.
• Glaz B, Miller JD, Tai PYP, Deren CW, Kang, MS, Lyrene PM, and Gill BS. 2002. Sugarcane genotype repeatability in replicated selection stages and commercial adoption. J Amer Soc Sugarcane Tech 22:73-88.
• Huang L, Brooks SA, Fellers JP, and Gill BS. 2003. Map-based cloning of leaf rust resistance gene Lr21 from the large and polyploidy genome of bread wheat. Genetics 164(2):655-664.
• Huang S, Sirikhachornkit A, Su X, Faris JD, Gill BS, Haselkorn R, and Gornicki P. 2002. Phylogenetic analysis of the acetyl-CoA carboxylase and 3-phosphoglycerate kinase of the Triticum/Aegilops complex and the evolutionary history of polyploid wheat. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99(12):8133-8138.
• Huang S, Sirikhachornkit A, Su X, Faris JD, Gill BS, Haselkorn R, and Gornicki P. 2002. Genes enconding plastid acetyl-CoA carboxylase and 3-phosphoglycerate kinase loci in wheat and other grasses. Plant Mol Biol 48:805-820.
• Li WL and Gill BS. 2002. The colinearity of Sh2/A1 orthologous region in rice, sorghum and maize is interrupted and accompanied by genome expansion in the Triticeae. Genetics 160:1153-1162.
• Maleki L, Fellers JP, Faris JD, Bowden RL, and Gill BS. 2003. Physical and genetic mapping of wheat NBS-LRR and kinase class resistance gene analogs. Crop Sci 43:660-670.
• Malik R, Brown-Guedira GL, Smith CM, Harvey TL, and Gill BS. 2003. Genetic mapping of an Aegilops tauschii gene transferred to common wheat conferring resistance to all strains of wheat curl mite. Crop Sci 43:644-650.
• Qi L, Echalier B, Friebe B, and Gill BS. 2003. Molecular characterization of a set of wheat deletion stocks for use in chromosome bin mapping of ESTs. Funct Integr Genomics 3:39-55.
• Ram S, Boyko E, Giroux MJ, and Gill BS. 2002. Null mutation in puroindoline A is prevalent in Indian wheats: puroindoline genes are located in the distal part of 5BS. J Plant Biochem Biotech 11:79-83.
• Singh S, Brown-Guedira GL, Grewal TS, Dhaliwal HS, Nelson JC, Singh H, and Gill BS. 2003. Mapping of a resistance gene effective against diverse isolates of the Karnal bunt pathogen of wheat. Theor Appl Genet (in press).
• Sourdille P, Cadalen T, Gay G, Gill B, and Bernard M. 2002. Molecular and physical mapping of genes affecting awning in wheat. Plant Breed 121:320-324.
• Tuberosa R, Gill BS, and Quarrie SA. 2002. Cereal genomics: ushering in a brave new world. Plant Mol Biol 48:443-449.
• Yang J, Sears RG, Gill BS, and Paulsen GM. 2002. Genotypic differences in utilization of assimilate sources during maturation of wheat under chronic heat and heat shock stresses. Euphytica 125:179-180.
• Yang J, Sears RG, Gill BS, and Paulsen GM. 2002. Growth and senescence characteristics associated with tolerance of wheat-alien amphiploids to high temperature under controlled conditions. Euphytica 126:185-193.
• Yang J, Sears RG, Gill BS, and Paulsen GM. 2002. Quantitative and molecular characterization of heat tolerance in hexaploid wheat. Euphytica 126:275-282.
• Zhang P, Friebe B, and Gill BS. 2002. Variation in the distribution of a genome-specific DNA sequence on chromosomes reveals evolutionary relationships in the Triticum and Aegilops complex. Plant Syst Evol 235:169-179.
  

U.S. GRAIN MARKETING AND PRODUCTION RESEARCH CENTER

USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Manhattan, KS 66502, USA.

O.K. Chung, S.R. Bean, M. Tilley, G.L. Lookhart, F.E. Dowell, M.S. Ram, L.M. Seitz, M.E. Casada, J.B. Ohm, S.H. Park, B.W. Seabourn, M.S. Caley, E.B. Maghirang, J.D. Wilson, D.B. Bechtel, T.C. Pearson, F.H. Arthur, R.K. Lyne, D. L. Brabec, J.E. Throne, J.E. Baker, J.D. Hubbard, and J.M. Downing.

Cereal research in North America. [p. 185-186]

O.K. Chung, M. Tilley, and J.E. Dexter.

In the U.S.A., agricultural research (AR) is conducted by public (federal and state agencies) and private (industry) sectors. U.S. AR is funded mainly by federal departments (USDA and others) state agencies and to a lesser extent by other nonfederal and nonstate agencies. In the year 2000, the total funds for U.S. AR were nearly 3.5 billion dollars, of which 48 % ($1.67 billion) was from federal funds (USDA-ARS, CSREES, and other departments), 35.6 % ($1.23 billion) from state appropriations, and 16.4 % ($567.2 million) from nonfederal and nonstate sources. About 23 % of total AR is conducted by the USDA agencies and the remaining 77 % by the nonfederal agencies including 50 state agricultural experiment stations (one/state). Nationwide this represents a total of 16,998 AR projects and 9,368 scientists' years (SYs) of which 2,098 projects with 2,036 SYs were conducted by USDA-ARS. A small portion of the total U.S. AR is conducted in the area of cereal grain research. Approximately 800 SYs (8.4 % of total SYs in AR) are engaged in about 3,000 projects (17 % of total AR projects) with a budget amounting to nearly $300 million. Among the cereal grains, corn (maize) research is most active with 270 SYs working on over 1,000 projects funded with over $107 million. This is followed by wheat research with 258 SYs working on 973 projects with a budget of $94 million. Other grains in order of funding include rice, grain sorghum, and rye. In Canada, government institutions, mainly the Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC), conduct the majority of AR. In addition, the Canadian Food Inspection Agency, the National Research Council, the Canadian Grain Commission-Grain Research Laboratory, and nongovernment agencies such as the Canadian International Grains Institute and universities of Manitoba, Guelph, and Saskatchewan are all important agencies/institutions for Canadian AR. The five Research Centers in the eastern Canada place the most emphasis on programs in the area of cereal research (wheat, oats, maize, etc.). Because cereal grains dominate agriculture in western Canada, there are major cereal programs at the three Centers in Winnipeg, Swift Current, and Lethbridge. Programs in western Canada include crop and soil management, breeding, gene mapping, development of quality screening protocols, research on cereal component structure, and cereal processing studies.

Cereal research in the USA. [p. 186]

O.K. Chung and M. Tilley.

The goals of agricultural research in the U.S. are to enhance the economic viability and competitiveness of the U.S. by maintaining the quality of harvested agricultural commodities or otherwise enhancing their marketability, meeting consumer needs, developing environmentally friendly and efficient processing concepts, and expanding market opportunities through the development of value-added food and nonfood products and processes. Research is conducted by public (federal and state agencies) and private (industry) sectors. In the public sectors, including the U.S. Department of Agriculture, State Agricultural Experiment Stations located in land-grant universities, other universities, and also other cooperating institutions. Research is funded mainly by federal departments (USDA and others), state agencies, and to a lesser extent by other non-federal and non-state agencies. In the year 2000, the total funds for agricultural research were nearly 3.5 billion dollars, of which 48 % ($1.67 billion) was from federal funds, 35.6 % ($1.23 billion) from state appropriations, and 16.4 % ($567.2 million) from nonfederal and nonstate support. Cereal grain research accounts for a small portion of the total U.S. agricultural research. Among the cereal grains, corn (maize) research is most active followed by wheat research. Other grains in order of funding include rice, grain sorghum, and lastly rye. Cereal grains research is supported slightly more by federal than by non-federal funds. However, rice, grain sorghum, and grain crops research projects were funded slightly more by nonfederal sources. The U.S. supports the use of biotechnology for the development of enhanced agricultural products and has a rigorous system involving three federal agencies that regulates and monitors agricultural biotechnology including the evaluation of genetically modified crops that may be used for human and animal consumption at all levels of production.

The study of wheat starch size distribution using image analysis and laser-diffraction technology. [p. 186]

J.D. Wilson and D.B. Bechtel.

Starch was isolated from wheats of four different classes and analyzed using digital image analysis (IA) coupled to a light microscope and several laser diffraction sizing instruments (LDS). The IA data was converted into volume data in order to compare to LDS data. LDS analysis tended to underestimate both A and B starch granule populations when compared to IA. Linear correlations comparing IA to LDS instruments ranged from r = 0.17599 (p > 0.1) to r = 0.73956 (p < 0.001) depending on the LDS instrument used. A correction factor was developed to convert LDS starch size distribution data to that obtained using IA. The corrections were validated to four classes of wheat; spelt, HRW, HRS, and durum. R2 values of the corrected starch size distribution general linear regression model were as follows: spelt, 0.86; HRW, 0.77; HRS, 0.79; and durum, 0.89. The corrections will be used to develop a standard method of analysis for measuring wheat starch size distributions quickly and accurately.

The effect of various wavelengths in the quantitation of wheat proteins with SE-HPLC. [p. 187]

H.A. Naeem, F. MacRitchie, and G.L. Lookhart.

The total polymeric proteins from more than 100 wheat flour samples were analyzed via SE­HPLC using a system with a diode array detector. The chromatograms were recorded at five different wavelengths; 200, 210, 214, 250, and 270 nm. The chromatograms of the samples, recorded at different wavelengths, were different from each other in absorption intensity and total area. However, the percentage area under each peak of the chromatograms was similar for all wavelengths investigated. Highly significant correlations were observed when comparing the percent areas of each peak recorded at different wavelength. Although the overall percentage areas were the same, minor differences were noted in the chromatograms recorded at 200 nm. This study shows that wheat proteins may be quantitated by SEC-HPLC at any of the 5 wavelengths described.

The effect of high temperature stress on accumulation of storage proteins: quantitation of polymeric proteins during grain development in near-isogenic wheat lines expressing HMW-GS (2 + 12) or Glu-1D1 (5 + 10). [p. 187]

H. A. Naeem, F. MacRitchie, and G. L. Lookhart.

Effect of elevated temperatures on accumulation of storage proteins during grain development was investigated in wheat near-isogenic lines expressing HMW-GS Glu-D1a (2+12) or Glu-D1d (5+10). Plants were exposed to six separate temperature regimes. The intensity, duration and the developmental stage of plants (days-after-anthesis) were varied over the different treatments. Grains were collected starting 16 days-after-anthesis until maturity, at 3-day intervals. Total and unextractable polymeric protein (UPP) per grain were determined by SEC-HPLC. UPP was found to provide a clear differentiation between the near-isogenic lines in accumulation patterns of polymeric proteins. The heat treatment reduced the time, up to 6 days, to initiate the accumulation of UPP. Lines expressing HMW-GS 5+10 began to increase UPP 3 to 6 days earlier than 2+12 lines and maintained that difference until maturity.

Effect of Aelia spp. and Eurygaster spp. damage on wheat proteins. [p. 187]

C.M. Rosell, S. Aja, S. Bean, and G.L. Lookhart.

The effect of Aelia spp. and Eurygaster spp. wheat bugs on the protein fractions of different wheat cultivars has been studied by SE-HPLC and free-zone capillary electrophoresis (FZCE). Those methods were used to quantify and characterize the extent of protein modification. A decrease in the amount of alcohol insoluble polymeric proteins along with an increase in the alcohol soluble polymeric proteins and gliadins were observed in damaged wheat. The HMW- and LMW-glutenin fractions were barely detected in the incubated damaged wheat from some cultivars, which indicated hydrolysis of those proteins by the bug proteinases. In damaged wheats both incubated and unincubated, gliadin electrophoregrams revealed the presence of some new peaks with mobilities similar to the w gliadins. The overall results suggest that the bug proteinases are potent enzymes, which appear to be nonspecific because they hydrolyze all gluten proteins.

Relationship of insoluble polymeric proteins to mixing requirements for flours from commercial mills and individual cultivars.. [p. 187-188]

G.L. Lookhart, S. Bean, R. Lyne, O.K. Chung, S. Chandra, J.-B Ohm, M. Stearns, and S. Piland.

This project was designed to examine the potential of predicting the mixing properties of commercial flours (CF). Mixing properties of individual cultivars are related to the amount of insoluble polymeric protein (IPP). The IPP of each sample was determined by extracting the soluble proteins and combusting the dried remaining sample for protein content. The CF samples were obtained from three commercial mills on a weekly basis for 3 years. The individual cultivars were hard winter wheats from the 95­98 Wheat Quality Council (WQC). The mixing properties of the CF were evaluated by the Labtron, whereas those of the individual cultivars (WQC samples) were evaluated by the Mixograph. The average % IPP for the two sets were the same, 0.40, with a sd of 0.03. The % IPP of the WQC samples correlated with the mixing time with r values ranging from 0.60 to 0.85 over 4 crop years. In the CF, the % IPP versus Labtron mixing time r values were nearly zero. The range of % IPP values in the CF was narrower than the WQC samples; 0.35 to 0.47 for the CF versus 0.28 to 0.55 for the WQC samples. The lack of variation in the CF supports the conclusion that the three CF mills selected and blended their wheats to produce consistent flours.

HPLC of gluten monomeric proteins. [p. 188]

G.L. Lookhart, S.R. Bean, and J.A. Bietz.

HPLC is an analytical method that uses a liquid pumping system to accurately deliver solvents through a column or columns each packed with particles of a specific size (1.5 to 10 µ) and with specific bonded phases. The end result is the ability to separate complex mixtures in minutes. HPLC is a superb tool as it is complimentary and often superior to previous methods for characterization of complex cereal proteins.

Separation of gluten proteins by high-performance capillary electrophoresis. [p. 188]

S.R. Bean and G.L. Lookhart.

HPCE is an analytical method that uses a voltage differential to accurately move solvents and solutes through a capillary. HPCE is a relative newcomer to the field of cereal chemistry, utilizing small inner diameter capillaries as an anti-convective medium in place of slab gels. Because of the small inner diameter of those capillaries (typically 50 to 100 µ) high voltages can be used, resulting in rapid, high resolution separations. Combining the high voltages (up to 30 kV) with isoelectric buffers and buffers varying in ionic strength, complex mixtures can be separated in minutes. Like traditional slab-gel electrophoresis, HPCE can operate in several modes. HPCE is a superb tool as it is complementary and often superior to previous methods for characterization of complex cereal proteins.

Separation of water soluble proteins from cereals by free-zone capillary electrophoresis (FZCE). [p. 188]

S.R. Bean and M. Tilley.

Most research concerning grain proteins has concentrated upon the gluten storage proteins. The albumins and globulins are the water and salt soluble proteins that contain biologically active enzymes and enzyme inhibitors. A free-zone capillary electrophoresis method was developed to separate these proteins. Optimization included sample extraction method, capillary temperature, buffer composition, and additives. The optimal conditions for separation of these proteins was found to be 50 µ i.d. x 27 cm (20 cm LD) capillary at 10 kV (with a 0.17 min ramp up time) and 25°C. The optimum buffer was 50 mM sodium phosphate, pH 2.5 + 20 % acetonitrile (v/v) (ACN) + 0.05 % (w/v) hydroxypropylmethyl-cellulose (HPMC) + 50 mM hexane sulfonic acid (HSA). Sample stability was an issue that was addressed by lyophilizing fresh extracts and redissolving in aqueous 50 % ethylene glycol and 10 % separation buffer. This method was successfully used in both wheat flour and whole meal samples. Comparisons were made of several wheats of different classes as well as several cereal grains. This methodology could be useful in screening cereal grains for important enzymes and their impact on end-use quality such as food functionality, food coloration, and malting quality.

Identification of active components from the water-soluble extract of wheat flour that catalyze dityrosine formation. [p. 189]

M. Tilley and K.A. Tilley.

The ability of a given wheat flour to form gluten determines its utilization quality. One of the most important aspects is the manner in which gluten proteins interact to form a cohesive, viscoelastic dough. Recently, dityrosine crosslinks were shown to be involved in dough formation and the water-soluble extract (WSE) of wheat flour was shown to catalyze their formation in vitro. The objective of this project was to identify the active component(s) of the WSE that are involved in catalyzing dityrosine. The WSE of flour (cultivar Bronze Chief) was fractionated and tested for dityrosine forming activity. Initial fractionation of the WSE involved separation of components by the use of preparative isoelectric focusing. The resulting 20 fractions were collected and tested in a single blind assay for dityrosine formation with appropriate controls. The fraction causing the greatest formation of the crosslink was further fractionated into single components. The identification of components that catalyze crosslinking and determination of activity may provide an analytical scheme for the use of crosslink formation as a means of predicting breadmaking quality.

Identification of novel structures in wheat dough: impact on structure and function of gluten. [p. 189]

K.A. Tilley and M. Tilley.

Formation of the 3-dimensional protein network known as gluten during dough mixing and breadmaking processes is extremely complex. A specific subset of the proteins comprising the gluten complex, the glutenin subunits, directly affect bread-making quality. Glutenin subunits have not been shown to exhibit any definitive structural differences that can be directly correlated to their ability to aggregate into the gluten complex and affect breadmaking quality. Evidence presented here indicates that tyrosine bonded species form in wheat doughs during the processes of mixing and baking and are major contributors to the structure of the gluten network. Various oxidizing and reducing agents that have been used in the baking industry directly affect tyrosine bonds. Tyrosine bonds between synthetic glutenin peptides form in vitro under baking conditions in the presence of potassium bromate and in the presence of water-soluble extract of flour. Bond structures and formation during the breadmaking processes have been documented by HPLC, NMR, and mass spectroscopic analyses. Flours and doughs from other nonwheat grains have been examined for their abilities to form tyrosine crosslinks. Comparisons of tyrosine crosslinks in soft, hard, and durum wheats have been made and show dramatic differences. The formation of tyrosine crosslinks in developing wheat kernels also has been documented, shedding light on the biological mechanisms for tyrosine crosslink formation.

PCR amplification of wheat sequences from DNA extracted during milling and baking. [p. 189]

M. Tilley.

Processing steps have a profound effect upon the proteins and DNA present in the final product. DNA-based analysis has several advantages over protein-based methods due to the fact that DNA is highly thermostable and DNA-based analyses are highly sensitive and specific. This project examined the effects of breadmaking on wheat DNA extracted from various steps in the baking process. Samples were taken from wheat kernels, milling fractions, flour, and at steps during and after the baking process. Kernel DNA contained high molecular weight DNA (>12,000 bp), whereas that from flour exhibited a broad smear (>12,000 bp to <300 bp). PCR was used to amplify sequences present at different copy numbers within the wheat genome. PCR successfully amplified products of both high and low copy number, however, successful amplification requires that the maximum size be no more than the average molecular weight of the DNA recovered from the source. The data also demonstrated the ability to detect the presence of a minor ingredient (yeast).

Segregation of hard winter wheats according to baking and milling properties using wheat quality parameters. [p. 190]

O.K. Chung, J.B. Ohm, M.S. Caley, B.W. Seabourn, M. Tilley, and P.A. Seib.

Predicting milling and baking quality of wheat from the properties of the kernels is highly desirable. Starting with 1,845 hard winter wheats grown in federal nurseries between 1990-2000, both the flour-milling yield and their pup-loaf volume were assigned to high, medium, and low categories, giving a total of nine quality permutations. Excellent (poor) wheats gave a combination of >68 % (<65 %) flour yield and >940 cm^3^ (<850 cm^3^) loaf volume. There were 141 excellent and 130 poor wheats in the total of 1,845 wheats. Wheat and single kernel parameters (total of 14) of the 1,845 wheats were then used to develop canonical classification models for quality segregation. The model successfully identified 58 % of the excellent wheats and 37 % of the poor wheats. No excellent wheat was predicted to be poor, or vice versa. A model based on single kernel parameters showed 49 % accuracy for the excellent classification but one excellent wheat was classified falsely with the poor wheats.

Effects of varying the weight ratio of large and small wheat starch granules on experimental pup-loaf bread. [p. 190]

S.H. Park, O.K. Chung, and P.A. Seib.

One commercial bread wheat flour (11.3 % protein content on 14 % mb) was fractionated into three fractions (starch, gluten, and water-solubles) by hand-washing. The starch fraction was further separated into large and small granules (LG and SG) by repeated sedimentation. Sizes of large (10-40 µ in diameter) and small (1-15 µ in diameter) starch fractions were examined by a MicroTrack S3000 (Wyomissing, PA). Flour fractions were reconstituted to their original levels in the flour but the weight percent of SG was varied at 0, 17, 30, 60, and 100 % of total starch. A modified pup straight-dough method was used in an experimental baking test. Loaf size (698-729 cc) and external appearance of breads were not affected by varying the weight ratio of starch granular sizes. However, the crumb appearance and softness were affected. The bread made from flour with starch of 30 % SG and 70 % LG had the highest crumb grain score (4.0; subjective method) and fineness (1029; CrumbScan, AIB) and the second highest elongation ratio (1.55; CrumbScan, AIB). Inferior crumb grain scores, low fineness and elongation ratios were observed in breads made from flours with starch fractions at 100 % SG or 100 % LG. The higher the proportion of SG in the flour, the softer the bread texture during storage.

Lipid extraction from wheat flour using supercritical fluid extraction. [p. 190]

J.D. Hubbard, J.M. Downing, and O.K. Chung.

Environmental concerns, the disposal cost of hazardous waste, and the time required for extraction encouraged us to look for a method to extract lipids from wheat flour that would be faster, less costly, and more environmentally acceptable. Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) with CO2 plus ethanol as a modifier has provided that medium. The method is fully automatic. Extraction of nonstarch free lipids (FL) or crude fats from wheat flour (about 5 g) by SFE using CO2 plus 11.7 mole % ethanol (12.2 % by volume) as modifier, at 7,500 psi (51.7 Mpa) and 80oC, was compared to the AACC Approved Method of Soxhlet extraction using petroleum ether. The precision of the FL extraction by SFE was comparable to that of Soxhlet with a 14.6 to 1 reduction in the overall analysis cost ($0.33 vs. $4.80/sample), including a 14 to 1 reduction in the cost of organic solvent and a 20 to 1 reduction for solvent disposal cost, and a possible six-fold reduction in analysis time.

Wheat lipids: what do they do to quality ? [p. 191]

O.K. Chung, J.B. Ohm, and S.H. Park.

Wheat lipids, a minor constituent, play major roles in wheat production, storage, processing, products, nutrition, and consumer acceptance of finished goods. Quantitative and qualitative differences in lipids in various structural parts of grains are responsible for multifaceted functions. In germination, nonpolar lipids (NL) are energy sources and polar lipids (PoL) are structural components of cellular membranes. Lipids are only 4-5 % of wheat kernel weight and are unevenly distributed in wheat structural parts, including 50­60 % in germ and outer parts and 40-50 % in endosperm (20-31 % nonstarch lipids (NSL) and 16-22 % starch lipids (SL)). Wheat lipids are broadly divided into free lipids (FL, easily extractable with ether or hexane) and bound lipids (BL, extractable with aqueous alcohol and at an elevated temperature for the SL). Lipids are most rapidly changing during grain/flour storage, especially under adverse conditions: an increase in fat acidity is an index of measuring storage conditions. Because of high concentration of lipids, germs are easily separated from flour during the milling process. Flour is less dusty because of the presence of FL; the removal of FL increased the dust index by 100 times. The large difference between steryl esters in bread wheat (3­58 mg/100-g wheat) from durum wheat (0­1.5 mg/100-g wheat) allows for detection of the contamination of durum semolina with bread wheat farina. Defatting and reconstituting studies demonstrated the beneficial effects of PoL (especially glycolipids, GL) but detrimental effects of NL on loaf volume, crumb grain, and texture of breads; positive effects of FL on size and internal structures of Arabic flat bread, Chinese steam bread, both cookie size and top-grain structures; a full restoration of cookie size by PoL but only partial restoration on top-grains by either PoL or NL; FL effects on both size and fine cell structures of pan-cake; the beneficial effects of FL on yellow color and decreases in surface stickiness and also cooking loss of spaghetti; positive effects of FL, especially NL, on keeping the surface firmness of cooked Asian noodles; and the role of FL to limit excessive expansion of extrudates. The U.S., Canadian, or Greek wheat showed genetic variations in FL composition (GL content, NL/POL or NL/GL ratios) to be significantly correlated with baking parameters, but only partially responsible. Thus, FL content/composition cannot be the sole bread quality determinant but a good supplementary one, especially for a wheat-breeding program.

Wheat lipids: a supplementary quality determinant. [p. 191]

O.K. Chung, J.B. Ohm, and S.H. Park.

Wheat lipids, a minor constituent, play major roles in wheat processing and consumer acceptance of finished goods. Lipids are only 4-5 % of wheat kernel weight and 40-50 % is in starchy endosperm (20-31 % nonstarch lipids (NSL) and 16-22 % starch lipids (SL)). Two broadly divided wheat flour lipids are free lipids (FL, easily extractable with ether or hexane) and bound lipids (BL, extractable with aqueous alcohol and at an elevated temperature for the SL). The NSL consist of 60% FL and 40% BL, whereas the SL are all in tightly bound form. Defatting and reconstituting studies demonstrated the beneficial effects of polar lipids (PoL, glycolipids, GL) but detrimental effects of nonpolar lipids (NL) on loaf volume (LV) and bread structures. NL is beneficial for cookies or cakes internal structures, spaghetti's bright yellow color, and firmness of cooked Asian noodles. Varietal variations in FL composition (GL, NL/PoL or NL/GL ratios) were significantly correlated with LV, as reported by various researchers. Based on our recent studies, the two main GL classes, monogalactosyldiglycerides (MGDG) and digalactosyldiglycerides (DGDG), showed opposite relationships with quality parameters. Kernel hardness parameters, flour yields, and water absorptions were correlated negatively with MGDG but positively with DGDG. MGDG contents were correlated with gluten contents negatively but with gluten index values positively. Flour FL content and composition (MGDG/GL or DGDG/GL ratios) supplemented flour protein content to develop prediction equations of mixograph mix time (MT, R2 = 0.89), bake MT (R2 = 0.76), and LV (R2 = 0.72). Lipids were only partially responsible for variations in end-use quality. Therefore, wheat lipids cannot be the sole quality determinant, but a good supplementary one, especially for screening wheat breeding lines at early generations.

Analysis of flavor compounds from microwave popcorn using supercritical fluid CO2 followed by dynamic/static headspace techniques. [p. 192]

R. Rengarajan and L.M. Seitz.

Dynamic-headspace purge (DHP) analysis was used to observe volatile compounds from freshly popped commercial flavored and non-flavored microwave popcorn. The obtained results were compared with supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) followed by DHP. The sensitivity of the latter method (SFE-DHP), in general, was several fold higher than DHP itself. Previously reported high FD compounds like 2-acetyl-tetrahydropyridine, 4-vinylguaiacol, 2-phenylacetaldehyde and 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline were found by both methods in this study, not only with very little sample quantity but also with relatively little sample preparation time. Except for 2-methylpyrazine, all observed pyrazines were 2-6 fold higher with the SFE-DHP than the DHP method. In a separate experiment, the supercritical fluid (SF) extract from popcorn was a) exposed to a SPME fiber (SFE-SPME), and b) injected directly into the gas chromatograph. SFE-SPME showed highest sensitivity towards pyrazines. Furaneol, vanillin, sulfurol, maltoxaine, and nonalactone were detected best by direct injection of the SF extract.

Metabolites of lesser grain borer in grains. [p. 192]

L.M. Seitz and M.S. Ram.

Lesser grain borer (LGB, Rhyzopertha dominica) is an insect that causes major physical and off-odor damage to grain in storage. Metabolites of LGB were identified to obtain information needed for understanding and detecting the off-odor, and providing alternative means for detecting LGB infestation. Volatiles from grains, mostly whole wheat, at 80 C were collected on Tenax absorbent, thermally desorbed, and analyzed by gas chromatography using infrared and mass detectors for component identification. A solid-phase-micro-extraction technique also was used in analyzing grain samples and in a synthesis process required to identify ester metabolites. Predominant compounds in LGB-infested grains were 2-pentanol and its esters of 2-methyl-2-pentenoic (A) and 2,4-dimethyl-2-pentenoic (B) acids which are known aggregation pheromones, dominicalures 1 and 2. 2-Pentanol esters of saturated A, beta-keto- and beta-hydroxy derivatives of A and B, and 1,2-carbon homologues of A and B were found. Other 5­7 carbon straight- and branched-chain secondary alcohols and their esters were also observed. Some of these metabolites, especially 2-pentanol, were associated with insect odor in grain samples obtained from grain inspectors. Advanced LGB infestation was indicated by presence of the minor ester and alcohol metabolites. These metabolites are of interest to scientists investigating insect metabolism and behavior.

Characterization of volatile organic compounds in airborne dust. [p. 192]

E.B. Razote R.G. Maghirang L.M. Seitz, and I.J. Jeon.

Three methods of extracting volatile, organic compounds (VOCs) adsorbed on the airborne dust in a swine finishing building were investigated. Airborne dust was collected in prebaked glass fiber filters (GFFs) and the compounds were extracted by solvent extraction using dichloromethane, solid-phase microextraction (SPME) using carboxen/polydimethylsiloxane (CAR/PDMS) and PDMS fibers, and purge and trap methods. Solvent extraction was not sensitive enough to extract detectable amounts of compounds, except for some high-boiling-point, fatty acids. The SPME and purge and trap methods were effective in extracting the more volatile compounds adsorbed in the airborne dust. The SPME CAR/PDMS fiber extracted the low to mid boiling point compounds like the fatty acids, phenols and indoles, whereas the PDMS fiber extracted more of the mid boiling point compounds, specifically the aliphatic hydrocarbons. Purge and trap method extracted compounds with low to mid boiling points. Most of these compounds are also present in the air of swine buildings. The major compounds identified were carboxylic acids, aldehydes, alcohols, ketones, hydrocarbons, phenols, indoles, phthalates, and esters.

FT-Raman spectra of unsoaked and NaOH-soaked wheat kernels, bran, and ferulic acid. [p. 193]

M.S. Ram, F.E. Dowell, and L. Seitz.

The NaOH test for determining wheat color class depends on the observation that upon soaking in NaOH, red wheat turns a darker red and white wheat turns straw yellow. To understand the mechanism of this test, Raman spectra of wheat bran, wheat starch, ferulic acid, and whole kernels of wheat, before and after NaOH soak, were studied. The major observable components in the whole kernel were that of starch, protein, and ferulic acid, perhaps esterified to arabinoxylan and sterols. When kernels are soaked in NaOH, spectral bands due to ferulic acid shift to lower energy and show a slightly-reduced intensity which is consistent with deprotonation of the phenolic group and extraction of a portion of the ferulic acid into solution. Other phenolic acids, alkyl resorcinols, and flavonoids found in the NaOH extracts of wheat by high performance liquid-chromatography were not observed in the Raman spectra. Wheat bran accounts for most of the ferulic acid in the whole kernel, as indicated by the increased intensity of the doublet at 1,631 and 1,600/cm in the bran. The intense starch band at 480/cm found in the whole kernel of wheat was nearly absent in the wheat bran.

Use of optical sorting to detect wheat kernels infected with Tilletia indica. [p. 193]

F.E. Dowell, T.N. Boratynski, R.E. Ykema, A.K. Dowdy, and R.T. Staten.

Tilletia indica is subject to international regulation by 78 countries, and U.S. economic losses could exceed $1 billion if T. indica was found throughout major wheat producing regions causing wheat exports to be halted. Currently, samples are inspected manually for the presence of kernels with Karnal bunt as part of routine survey methods. However, this visual procedure of inspecting all seeds in a sample can result in harvest delays due to long inspection times, and missed kernels due to inspector fatigue. A high-speed sorter was tested to determine if infected kernels could be rapidly removed from 1,800-g wheat samples. When the sorter removed about 8 % or more of the sample, the reject portion contained 100 % of the bunted kernels. Concentrating the bunted kernels in a smaller sample size will reduce sample inspection time and should reduce inspection errors. One high-speed sorter can process up to 8,800 kg/hr, thus bunted kernels can be rapidly removed from samples or large lots. Each sample was sorted in less than 1 minute. This technology provides the wheat industry with a tool to rapidly inspect samples to aid in regulating Karnal bunt, and to remove bunted grains from seed wheat and wheat destined for food or feed use.

Detecting single wheat kernels containing live or dead insects using near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy. [p. 193]

E.B. Maghirang, F.E. Dowell, J.E. Baker, and J.E. Throne.

An automated NIR system was used over a two-month storage period to detect single wheat kernels that contained live or dead internal rice weevils at various stages of growth. Correct classification of sound kernels and kernels containing live pupae, large larvae, medium-sized larvae, and small larvae averaged 94, 92, 84, and 62 %, respectively. Wheat kernels containing either live or dead insects were used to develop pupae + large larvae calibrations for detecting both live and dead insects in wheat. Validation results showed correct classifications ranging from 86 to 96 % over the 2-month storage period. The important wavelengths for detecting internal insects across the 2-month storage period included 990 nm (starch); 1,135 and 1,670 nm (rice weevil cuticular lipids); 1,425 nm (insect moisture); and 1,210, 1,325, 1,370, 1,395, and 1,610 nm (C­H first and second overtones and C-H combination bond vibrations). The data provided evidence that the physical or biochemical differences detected by NIR for live insects are generally the same factors detected by NIR for dead insects over a two-month storage period. These findings showed that NIR calibrations for internal insect detection can be done using kernels containing either live or dead insects; this will impact how calibration samples can be handled. Immediate sample processing may no longer be necessary; internal insects can be killed and calibrations can be created at a later time without sacrificing accuracy. Additionally, these same calibration samples can be shared across locations or laboratories resulting in savings in time and resources.

Automated detection of hidden internal insect infestations in wheat kernels using electrical conductance. [p. 194]

T.C. Pearson and D. Brabec.

The wheat industry is in need of an automated, economical, and rapid means to detect whole wheat kernels internally infested with insects. The feasibility of the Perten single-kernel characterization system (SKCS) to detect internal insect infestations was studied. The SKCS monitors compression force and electrical conductance as individual kernels are being crushed. Samples of HRWW and SRWW infested with rice weevil and lesser grain borer were run through the SKCS and the conductance/crush signals saved for post-run processing. We found that a discontinuity is often present in the conductance signal of an insect-infested kernel. An algorithm was developed to classify kernels as infested, based on features of the conductance signal. Average classification accuracies for all wheat samples were 24.5 % for small-sized larvae, 62.2 % for medium-sized larvae, 87.5 % for large-sized larvae, and 88.6 % for pupae. There were no false positives (sound kernels classified as infested). The classification algorithm is robust for a wide range of moisture contents. Classification accuracy was somewhat better for kernels infested with rice weevils than for lesser grain borer, and classification accuracy was better for HRWW than for SRWW.

Controlled aeration. [p. 194]

M.E. Casada and F.H. Arthur.

Controlled aeration is an improved technique for cooling stored grain and preventing deterioration from molds and insects. By automating control of the fans with a simple reliable control system, fan operation is much easier for the operator and the aeration process will be more efficient and effective than can be achieved by manual operation. However, controlled aeration is only part of an effective storage management plan. Controlled aeration and other important aspects of grain storage management are required to maintain stored grain quality.

Temperature monitoring and aeration strategies for stored wheat in the central plains. [p. 194]

M.E. Casada, F.H. Arthur, and H. Akdogan.

Two aeration strategies were compared to no aeration in field tests of stored wheat in Kansas. An additional summer aeration cycle before the usual two autumn cycles produced better temperatures for insect control in the grain. Both aeration strategies yielded much better temperatures for insect control than did the naturally cooled, unaerated bin (~ 3,500 bu/bin). In 2 years of tests with wheat aerated with low airflow rates in summer immediately after harvest, there were sufficient hours with air temperatures below 24 C (75 F) to cool the grain with an airflow rate of 0.11 m^3^/min-t (0.1 cfm/bu). However, during one year, high humidities during these nighttime periods of low temperatures resulted in final temperatures higher than 24 C because of the heating effect when the grain was slightly rewetted by the high humidity air. These results demonstrate the importance of looking at both temperature and humidity together to evaluate weather conditions for adequate cooling potential, especially during summer aeration when air temperatures are near the upper acceptable limit.

Accuracy and feasibility of measuring characteristics of single kernels using near-infrared spectroscopy. [p. 194]

F.E. Dowell and E.B. Maghirang.

Single-kernel near-infrared spectroscopy has been used to measure many grain attributes such as protein, oil, internal insects, transgenic traits, and fungal damage. Analysis of single kernels instead of bulk samples has the advantage of detecting attributes that may only be present in a few kernels in a sample and also can give the distribution of measured attributes.

Evaluation of a high-speed color sorter for segregation of red and white wheat. [p. 195]

M.C. Pasikatan and F.E. Dowell.

A high-speed color sorter has the potential to help wheat breeders purify their white wheat breeding lines and white wheat exporters meet purity requirements of end users. For this reason, a commercial color sorter was evaluated for sorting mixed red and white wheat. Ten wheat blends containing 95 % white and 5 % red wheat by mass were produced by mixing common cultivars of hard white and hard red winter wheat. The sorter was set to accept white wheat and reject red wheat in single pass when viewed by either a green or red filter. Percentages of red and white wheat in the accept and reject portions were determined by soaking in sodium hydroxide, a definitive method for determining if a wheat kernel is red or white. In order to reject most of the red wheat in a single pass through the sorter, at least 15 % of the original wheat mass needed to be rejected. F or wheat blends with white wheat of consistent color that contrasted considerably with the red wheat contaminant, this rejection would reduce red wheat mass in the accept portion to <1 %. This reduction could be achieved for most other blends when rejecting 20-25 % of the mass or through resorting the accept portion. The red filter resulted in more red kernels rejected than the green filter.

Determining wheat vitreousness using image processing and a neural network. [p. 195]

N. Wang, F.E. Dowell, and N. Zhang.

The GrainCheck 310 is a real-time, image-based wheat quality inspection machine that can replace tedious visual inspections for purity, color, and size characteristics of grains. This machine also has the potential for measuring the vitreousness of durum wheat. Different neural-network calibration models were developed to classify vitreous and nonvitreous kernels and evaluated using samples from GIPSA and from fields in North Dakota. Model transferability between different inspection machines was also tested.

Single-kernel protein variance structure in commercial fields in western Kansas. [p. 195]

T. Bramble, T.J. Herrman, T. Loughin, and F.E. Dowell.

Research was undertaken to quantify the structure of protein variation in a commercial HRWW production system. This information will augment our knowledge and practices of sampling, segregation, marketing, and varietal development to improve uniformity and end-use quality of HRWW. The allocation of kernel-protein variance to specific components in southwestern Kansas was performed using a hierarchical sampling design. The variance structure included fields, plots within fields, rows within plots, plants within rows, heads on a single plant, spikelet position on a single head, and kernels within a spikelet. Individual kernels (10,150) were collected from 47 fields planted to one of the following four cultivars: Jagger, 2137, Ike, or TAM 107. Kernels were evaluated for protein concentration using a single kernel characterization system equipped with a diode array NIR spectrometer (SKCS 4170). For the cultivars Jagger, 2137, and Ike, all sources of variability except kernels within a spikelet were statistically significant (P < 0.05). For TAM 107, variation attributed to fields and plants within fields were not significant; however, the remaining sources of variability were significant (P < 0.05). Field and plot sources of variability contributed the greatest amount of variance within the hierarchy for Jagger, 2137, and Ike. For TAM 107, plot was the greatest source of variability. The least squares means were calculated for the fixed effect spikelet position on a head. Jagger, Ike, and 2137 showed a significant protein gradient in which the highest protein concentration occurred at the base of the head and the lowest protein content at the top. For TAM 107, the greatest protein content was found at the base; however, the middle spikelet contained the lowest protein content followed by the top most spikelet.

Accuracy and repeatability of protein content measurements for wheat during storage. [p. 195-196]

M.E. Casada and K. O'Brien.

Producers with wheat stored on-farm for a few months are concerned about unexpected decreases in protein content measurements obtained from commercial laboratories. These differences can adversely affect the price when the wheat is sold. This study evaluated the contribution of measurement errors in giving a false indication of protein change during storage. Eleven bins of wheat were sampled at three in-bin positions during one storage season and five of these bins were refilled and sampled during the second season to evaluate differences in protein measurements. Samples were analyzed for protein content using four measurement instruments. Additional wheat was stored in the laboratory and evaluated over two years with two instruments. Data showed that the variation between protein measuring instruments was significant with an expected variation of ± 0.74 % protein content (95 % confidence interval) during the field tests. The variation over time for measurements with the FGIS instrument was ± 0.3 % protein for an 8-month period, when measuring successive samples taken from the same positions. Measurements from the other three instruments varied by ± 0.8 % protein or more during the same time. Variation with in-bin position was not significantly different (a = 0.05) than the variation between instruments. The greater consistency for the FGIS instrument was likely due to the rigorous standardization and maintenance procedures employed by FGIS for their NIR protein instruments, indicating that a similar rigorous system is needed to obtain the same consistency for other instruments used in the wheat marketing system.

New scientists­welcome. [p. 196]

P.A. Armstrong, E.B. Maghirang, and M.S. Ram.

Engineering Research Unit. Dr. Paul Armstrong joined the Engineering Research Unit of GMPRC in July. Paul was originally from South Dakota and his family moved to Australia where he received a bachelor's degree in engineering from the University of Southern Queensland. In 1982, he received a master's degree in agricultural engineering from Oklahoma State University and in 1989, he received his Ph.D. in agricultural engineering from Michigan State University. Before joining GMPRC, Paul was the proprietor of Bioworks, Inc. in Stillwater, Oklahoma, where he developed instrumentation to measure the firmness and size of small fruit such as cherries. His research program at GMPRC will focus on grain quality instrument sensors. He is particularly interested in investigating sensors for grain quality trait analysis and in-storage networked sensors for grain quality monitoring.

Engineering Research Unit. Elizabeth Bonifacio-Maghirang joined the Engineering Research Unit in November, 2002, as an agricultural engineer. She received her B.S. and M.S. in agricultural engineering from the University of the Philippines at Los Baños and completed her 2-year postgraduate research in Agricultural Engineering at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. She also received training from the Universiti Putra Malaysia (formerly Universiti Pertanian Malaysia) on economics for agricultural engineers. Elizabeth has experience as a researcher with the University of the Philippines, International Rice Research Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, and Kansas State University. Her research experience is in the area of grain quality for various commodities such as wheat, rice, corn, sorghum, soybeans, and guar splits. She has expertise in grain quality assessment, grain quality detection and sorting systems using NIR and machine vision, crop processing, economics of grain quality, and research management and coordination. Her responsibilities at the GMPRC include developing quality measurement procedures and instrumentation for grains, oilseeds, and grain and oilseed products, and research management and coördination.

Grain Quality and Structure Research Unit. Dr. M. S. Ram joined the Grain Quality and Structure Research Unit in January, 2003 as a chemist. Dr. Ram received his Ph. D. in chemistry in 1983 from Kent State University (Kent, OH) and was a postdoctoral researcher at Rice University (Houston, Texas), Iowa State University (Ames, IA), Northwestern University (Evanston, IL), Kansas State University, and Grain Marketing and Production Research Center (Manhattan, KS). His recent contributions include the use of an auto-sampler for purge and trap analysis of grain volatiles by GC-IR/MS, development of a standard procedure for NaOH test for wheat color class determination, Raman, and fluorescence spectra of red and white wheat. He will be working with Dr. Okky Chung on super-critical extraction and analysis of lipids from wheat flour and other cereal foods.

Publications. [p. 196-199]

• Bean SR and Lookhart GL. 2003. Separation of gluten proteins by high performance capillary electrophoresis. In: Gluten protein analysis (Shewry PR and Lookhart GL eds). Am Assoc Cereal Chem, St Paul, MN (in press).
• Bean SR and Lookhart GL. 2001. High-performance capillary electrophoresis of meat, dairy, and cereal proteins. Electrophoresis 22:4207-4215.
• Bechtel DB and Wilson JD. 2002. Amyloplast formation and starch granule development in hard red winter wheat. In: Program and Abstract Book of the 87th AACC Annual Meet, p. 78.
• Bechtel DB and Wilson JD. 2003. Amyloplast formation and starch granule development in hard red winter wheat. Cereal Chem (in press).
• Bennett RE, Chung OK, and Herrman TJ. 2002. Milling and bread-baking qualities of hard winter wheat varieties: 2002 Kansas update. Kansas State University, Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service. MF-1077. 4 pp.
• Bramble T, Herrman TJ, Loughin T, and Dowell FE. 2002. Single kernel protein variance structure in commercial fields in Western Kansas. Crop Sci 42(5):1488-1492.
  Casada ME, Arthur FH, and Akdogan H. 2002. Temperature monitoring and aeration strategies for stored wheat in the central plains. In: 2002 ASAE Ann Internat Meet CIGR XVth World Cong, Chicago, IL, 28-31 July. Paper No. 02-6116.
• Casada ME and Arthur FH. 2002. Controlled aeration. World Grain 20(11):26-30.
• Casada ME and O'Brien K. 2003. Accuracy and repeatability of protein content measurements for wheat during storage. Appl Eng Agric (in press).
• Chung OK. 2002. Greetings from the ICC. In: Wheat quality elucidation: the Bushuk legacy (Ng PKY and Wrigley CW eds). Amer Assoc Cereal Chem, St Paul, MN. Pp. ix-x.
• Chung OK. 2002. Welcome address as ICC President. In: Book of abstracts 2nd Internat Conf Grain, Flour, and Bread Quality, 20-24 May, 2002, Moscow, Russia.
• Chung OK, Dowell FE , Bean SR, Lookhart GL, Ohm JB, Tilley M, Seitz LM, Ram MS, Bechtel DB, Casada ME, Park SH, Hubbard JD, Seabourn BW, Caley MS, Wilson JD, Dempster RE, Downing JM, Throne JE, Baker JE, Chang CS. 2002. Wheat research in the U.S. Grain Marketing Research Laboratory, Grain Marketing and Production Research Center. Ann Wheat Newslet 48:224-234.
• Chung OK, Ohm JB, and Park SH. 2002. Wheat lipids: a supplementary quality determinant. In: Proc ICC Conf 2002, Novel raw materials, technologies, and products, New challenges for the quality control (Salgo A ed). Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Hungary. Pp. 167-175.
• Chung OK, Ohm JB, and Park SH. 2002. Wheat lipids: a supplementary quality determinant. In: Proc ICC Conf 2002, Novel raw materials, technologies, and products, New challenges for the quality control (Salgo A ed). Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Hungary. p. 55.
• Chung OK, Ohm JB, Caley MS, Seabourn BW, Tilley M, and Seib PA. 2002. Segregation of hard winter wheats according to baking and milling properties using wheat quality parameters. In: Abstract book 87th AACC Ann Meet. p. 156.
• Chung OK, Ohm JB, Guo AM, Deyoe CW, Lookhart GL, and Ponte JG Jr. 2002. Free lipids in air-classified high-protein fractions of hard winter wheat flours and their effects on breadmaking quality. Cereal Chem 79:774-778.
• Chung OK, Ohm JB, Lookhart GL, and Bruns RF. 2003. Quality characteristics of hard winter and hard spring wheats grown under an over-wintering condition. J Cereal Sci (in press).
• Chung OK, Ohm JB, and Park SH. 2002. Wheat lipids: what do they do to quality? In: Book of abstracts 2nd Internat Conf Grain, Flour, and Bread Quality, 20-24 May, 2002, Moscow, Russia. pp. 59-61.
• Chung OK and Tilley M. 2002. Cereal research in the U.S.A. In: Rep EU/ICC Cereal Conf 2002 (ECC 2002), Implementation of the European research area (Glattes H and vander Kamp JW eds). 6-8 March, 2002, Vienna, Austria. Pp. 55-57.
• Chung OK, Tilley M, and Dexter JE. 2002. Cereal research in North America. Rep EU/ICC Cereal Conf 2002 (ECC 2002), Implementation of the European research area (Glattes H and vander Kamp JW eds). 6-8 March, 2002, Vienna, Austria. Pp. 6-7.
• Chung OK, Tilley M, Ohm JB, Caley MS, Seabourn BW. 2002. Hard winter wheats-past, present, and future. In: Proc 5th Ann Natl Wheat Industry Res Forum (Madl RL ed). 17 January, 2002, Orlando, FL. pp. 20-23.
• Chung OK, Tilley M, Park SH, Caley MS, and Seabourn BW. 2003. Directions in United States wheat quality. In: Abstract book 2003 AACC Pacific Rim Meet, Wheat quality measurement and processing into the 21st Century, 17-19 March, 2003, Honolulu, HI (in press).
• Delwiche SR and Dowell FE. 2002. NIR-Analyise von einzelnen Weizenkornern (Single Kernel Wheat NIR Analysis). Getreide Mehl und Brot 56(3):141-146 (in German).
• Dowell FE, Boratynski TN, Ykema RE, Dowdy AK, and Staten RT. 2002. Use of optical sorting to detect wheat kernels infected with Tilletia indica. Plant Dis 86:1011-1013.
• Dowell FE and Maghirang EB. 2003. Accuracy and feasibility of measuring characteristics of single kernels using near-infrared spectroscopy. In: Proc ICC Conf 2002, Novel raw materials, technologies, and products, New challenges for the quality control (Salgo A ed). Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Hungary. p. 313-320.
• Graybosch RA, Souza E, Berzonsky W, Baenziger PS, and Chung OK. 2003. Functional properties of waxy wheat flours: genotypic and environmental effects. J Cereal Sci (in press).
• Graybosch RA, Souza E, Berzonsky W, Baenziger PS, and Chung OK. 2002. Functional properties of waxy wheat flours: genotypic and environmental effects. In: Abstract book 87th AACC Ann Meet. p. 142.
• Lookhart GL and Bean S. 2003. Methods for analyzing polymeric proteins of wheat and their impact on wheat quality. In: Abstract book 2003 AACC Pacific Rim Meet, Wheat quality measurement and processing into the 21st Century, 17-19 March, 2003, Honolulu, HI (in press).
• Lookhart GL, Bean SR, and Bietz JA. 2003. HPLC of gluten monomeric proteins. In: Gluten protein analysis (Shewry PR and Lookhart GL eds). Amer Assoc Cereal Chem, St. Paul, MN. Pp. 61-89.
• Lookhart GL, Bean S, Lyne RK, Chung OK, Chandra S, Ohm J-B, Stearns M, and Piland S. 2002. Relationship of insoluble polymeric proteins to mixing requirements for flours from commercial mills and individual cultivars. In: Abstract book 87th AACC Ann Meet. p. 118.
• Lookhart GL, Bean S, Lyne RK, Chung OK, Chandra S, Ohm J-B, Stearns M, and Piland S. 2003. Relationship of relative amounts of insoluble polymeric proteins to dough consistency for flours from commercial mills and individual cultivars. In: Abstract book 2003 AACC Pacific Rim Meet, Wheat quality measurement and processing into the 21st Century, 17-19 March, 2003, Honolulu, HI (in press).
• Maghirang EB, Dowell FE, Baker JE, and Throne JE. 2002. Detecting single wheat kernels containing live or dead insects using near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy. In: Proc Internat ASAE Meet, Chicago, IL. Paper No. 023067.
• Naeem HA, MacRitchie F, and Lookhart GL. 2002. The effect of various wavelengths in the quantitation of wheat proteins with SE-HPLC. In: Abstract book 87th AACC Ann Meet. p. 90.
• Naeem HA, MacRitchie F, and Lookhart GL. 2002. The effect of high temperature stress on accumulation of storage proteins: Quantitation of polymeric proteins during grain development in near-isogenic wheat lines expressing HMW-GS (2 + 12) or Glu-1D1 (5 + 10). In: Abstract book 87th AACC Ann Meet. p. 73.
• Ohm JB and Chung OK. 2002. Relationships of free lipids with quality factors in hard winter wheat flours. Cereal Chem 79:274-278.
• Park SH, Chung OK, and Seib PA. 2002. Effects of varying the weight ratio of large and small wheat starch granules on experimental pup-loaf bread. In: Abstract book 87th AACC Ann Meet. p. 140.
• Pasikatan MC and Dowell FE. 2003. Evaluation of a high-speed color sorter for segregation of red and white wheat. Trans ASAE (in press).
• Pearson TC and Brabec DL. 2002. Automated detection of hidden internal insect infestations in wheat kernels using electrical conductance. ASAE Meeting Paper No. 023073, St. Joseph, MI.
• Ram MS, Dowell FE, and Seitz L. 2003. FT-Raman spectra of unsoaked and NaOH soaked wheat kernels, bran and ferulic acid. Cereal Chem (in press).
• Ram MS, Dowell FE, Seitz LM, and Lookhart GL. 2002. Development of standard procedures for a simple, rapid test to determine wheat color class. Cereal Chem 79:230-237.
• Ram MS, Dowell FE, and Seitz L. 2002. Invisible coatings for wheat kernels. Cereal Chem 79(6):857-860.
• Razote EB, Maghirang RG, Seitz LM, Jeon IJ. 2002. Characterization of volatile organic compounds in airborne dust. In: Proc 2002 ASAE Ann Internat Meet/CIGR XVth World Cong. Paper number 02-4162.
• Rengarajan R and Seitz LM. 2002. Analysis of flavor compounds from microwave popcorn using supercritical fluid CO2 followed by dynamic/static headspace techniques. In: Abstract book 224th ACS Natl Meet.
• Rosell CM, Aja S, Bean SR, and Lookhart GL. 2002. Effect of Aelia spp. and Eurygaster spp. damage on wheat proteins. Cereal Chem 79:801-805.
• Rosell CM, Wang J, Bean SR, and Lookhart GL. 2003. Enzyme treatment during tempering to improve breadmaking quality of wheat proteins. Cereal Chem (in press).
• Seabourn BW. 2002. Determination of protein secondary structure in wheat flour-water systems during mixing using Fourier transform horizontal attenuated total reflectance infrared spectroscopy. Ph.D. Dissertation, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS. 151 pp.
• Seitz LM and Ram MS. 2002. Metabolites of lesser grain borer in grains. In: Abstract book 87th AACC Ann Meet. p. 140.
• Shewry PR and Lookhart GL (eds). 2003. Wheat gluten protein analysis. Amer Assoc Cereal Chem, St Paul, MN (in press).
• Throne JE, Dowell FE, Perez-Mendoza J, and Baker JE. 2002. Entomological applications of near-infrared spectroscopy. In: Stored Products Protection Internat Working Conf Proc, England.
• Tilley M and Tilley KA. 2002. Identification of active components from the water-soluble extract of wheat flour that catalyze dityrosine formation. In: Abstract book 87th AACC Ann Meet. p. 127.
• Wang N, Dowell FE, and Zhang N. 2002. Determining wheat vitreousness using image processing and a neural network. ASAE Paper No. 026089. 25 pp.
• Wilson JD and Bechtel DB. 2002. The study of wheat starch size distribution using image analysis and laser diffraction technology. In: Abstract book 87th AACC Ann Meet. p. 213.